Processing of Cotton
Cotton Manufacturing Processes (after Murray 1911)
Bale Breaker
Blowing Room
Willowing
Breaker Scutcher
Batting
Finishing Scutcher
Lapping
Carding
Carding Room
Silver Lap
Combing
Drawing
Slubbing
Intermediate
Roving
Fine Roving
Mule Spinning
-
Ring Spinning
Spinning
Reeling
Doubling
Winding
Bundling
Bleaching
Winding
Warping
Cabling
Sizing/Slashing/Dressing
Gassing
Weaving
Spooling
Cloth
Yarn (Cheese)- – Bundle
Sewing Thread
Cotton is the world’s most important natural fibre. In the year 2007, the global yield was 25 million tons from 35 million hectares cultivated in more than 50 countries.
There are five stages
Cultivating and Harvesting
Preparatory Processes
Spinning
Weaving
Finishing
Cultivating and harvesting
Cotton is grown anywhere with long, hot dry summers with plenty of sunshine and low humidity. Indian cotton, gossypium arboreum, is finer but the staple is only suitable for hand processing. American cotton, gossypium hirsutum, produces the longer staple needed for machine production. Planting is from September to mid November and the crop is harvested between March and May. The cotton bolls are harvested by stripper harvesters and spindle pickers, that remove the entire boll from the plant. The cotton boll is the seed pod of the cotton plant, attached to each of the thousands of seeds are fibres about 2.5 cm long.
Ginning
The seed cotton goes in to a Cotton gin. The cotton gin separates seeds and removes the “trash” (dirt, stems and leaves) from the fibre. In a saw gin, circular saws grab the fibre and pull it through a grating that is too narrow for the seeds to pass. A roller gin is used with longer staple cotton. Here a leather roller captures the cotton. A knife blade, set close to the roller, detaches the seeds by drawing them through teeth in circular saws and revolving brushes which clean them away.
The ginned cotton fibre, known as lint, is then compressed into bales which are about 1.5 m tall and weigh almost 220 kg. Only 33% of the crop is usable lint. Commercial cotton is priced by quality, and that broadly relates to the average length of the staple, and the variety of the plant. Longer staple cotton (2 in to 1 in) is called Egyptian, medium staple (1 in to in) is called American upland and short staple (less than in) is called Indian.
The cotton seed is pressed into a cooking oil. The husks and meal are processed into animal feed, and the stems into paper.
Issues
Cotton is farmed intensively and uses large amounts of fertiliser and 25% of the worlds insecticide. Native Indian variety were rainwater fed, but modern hybrids used for the mills need irrigation, which spreads pests. The 5% of cotton-bearing land in India uses 55% of all pesticides used in India. Before mechanisation, cotton was harvested manually and this unpleasant task was done by the lower castes, and in the United States by slaves of African origin.
Preparatory Processes- Preparation of yarn
Ginning, bale-making and transportation is done in the country of origin.
Opening and cleaning
Platt Bros. Picker
Cotton mills get the cotton shipped to them in large, 500 pound bales. When the cotton comes out of a bale, it is all packed together and still contains vegetable matter. The bale is broken open using a machine with large spikes. It is called an Opener.In order to fluff up the cotton and remove the vegetable matter, the cotton is sent through a picker, or similar machines. A picker looks similar to the carding machine and the cotton gin, but is slightly different. The cotton is fed into the machine and gets beaten with a beater bar, to loosen it up. It is fed through various rollers, which serve to remove the vegetable matter. The cotton, aided by fans, then collects on a screen and gets fed through more rollers till it emerges as a continuous soft fleecy sheet, known as a lap.
Blending,
Mixing & Scutching
Carding
Main article: Carding
Carding machine
Carding: the fibres are separated and then assembled into a loose strand (sliver or tow) at the conclusion of this stage.
The cotton comes off of the picking machine in laps, and is then taken to carding machines. The carders line up the fibres nicely to make them easier to spin. The carding machine consists mainly of one big roller with smaller ones surrounding it. All of the rollers are covered in small teeth, and as the cotton progresses further on the teeth get finer (i.e. closer together). The cotton leaves the carding machine in the form of a sliver; a large rope of fibres.
Note: In a wider sense Carding can refer to these four processes: Willowing- loosening the fibres; Lapping- removing the dust to create a flat sheet or lap of cotton; Carding- combing the tangled lap into a thick rope of 1/2 in in diameter, a sliver; and Drawing- where a drawing frame combines 4 slivers into one- repeated for increased quality.
Combing is optional,but is used to remove the shorter fibres, creating a stronger yarn.
A Combing machine
Drawing the fibres are straightened
Several slivers are combined. Each sliver will have thin and thick spots, and by combining several slivers together a more consistent size can be reached. Since combining several slivers produces a very thick rope of cotton fibres, directly after being combined the slivers are separated into rovings. These rovings are then what are used in the spinning process. Generally speaking, for machine processing a roving is about the width of a pencil.Next, several slivers are combined. Each sliver will have thin and thick spots, and by combining several slivers together a more consistent size can be reached. Since combining several slivers produces a very thick rope of cotton fibres, directly after being combined the slivers are separated into rovings. These rovings (or slubbings) are then what are used in the spinning process.
Generally speaking, for machine processing, a roving is about the width of a pencil.
Drawing frame: Draws the strand out
Slubbing Frame: adds twist, and winds on to bobbins
Intermediate Frames: are used to repeat the slubbing process to produce a finer yarn.
Roving frames: reduces to a finer thread, gives more twist, makes more regular and even in thickness, and winds on to a smaller tube.
Spinning- Yarn manufacture
Main article: Cotton-spinning machinery
Spinning
The spinning machines take the roving, thins it and twists it, creating yarn which it winds onto a bobbin.
In mule spinning the roving is pulled off a bobbin and fed through some rollers, which are feeding at several different speeds.This thins the roving at a consistent rate. If the roving was not a consistent size, then this step could cause a break in the yarn, or could jam the machine. The yarn is twisted through the spinning of the bobbin as the carriage moves out, and is rolled onto a cop as the carriage returns. Mule spinning produces a finer thread than the less skilled ring spinning.
The mule was an intermittent process, as the frame advanced and returned a distance of 5ft.It was the descendant of 1779 Crompton device. It produces a softer less twisted thread that was favoured for fines and for weft. It requires considerable skill, so was womens work.
The ring was a descendant of the Arkwright water Frame 1769. It was a continuous process, the yard was coarser, had a greater twist and was stronger so was suited to be warp. Requiring less skill it was mens work. Ring spinning is slow due to the distance the thread must pass around the ring, other methods have been introduced. These are collectively known as Break or Open-end spinning.
Sewing thread, was made of several threads twisted together, or doubled.
Checking
This is the process where each of the bobbins is rewound to give a tighter bobbin.
Folding and twisting
Plying is done by pulling yarn from two or more bobbins and twisting it together, in the opposite direction that that in which it was spun. Depending on the weight desired, the cotton may or may not be plied, and the number of strands twisted together varies.
Gassing
Main articles: Singe#Textiles and Gassing
Gassing is the process of passing yarn, as distinct from fabric very rapidly through a series of Bunsen gas flames in a gassing frame, in order to burn off the projecting fibres and make the thread round and smooth and also brighter. Only the better qualities of yarn are gassed, such as that used for voiles, poplins, venetians, gabardines, many Egyptian qualities, etc. There is a loss of weight in gassing, which varies’ about 5 to 8 per cent., so that if a 2/60′s yarn is required 2/56′s would be used. The gassed yarn is darker in shade afterwards, but should not be scorched.
Mule spinning
Mule spinning
Ring spinning
Ring spinning
Measurements
Main article: Units of textile measurement
Cotton Counts: The number of pieces of thread, 840 yards long needed to make up 1 lb weight. 10 count cotton means that 10×840 yd weighs 1 lb. This is coarser than 40 count cotton where 40×840 yards are needed. In the United Kingdom, Counts to 40s are coarse (Oldham Counts), 40 to 80s are medium counts and above 80 is a fine count. In the United States ones to 20s are coarse counts.
Hank: A length of 7 leas or 840 yards
Thread: A length of 54 in (the circumference of a warp beam)
Bundle: Usually 10 lb
Lea: A length of 80 threads or 120 yards
Denier: this is an alternative method. It is defined as a number that is equivalent to the weight in grams of 9000m of a single yarn. 15 denier is finer than 30 denier.
Tex: is the weight in grams of 1 km of yarn.
The worsted hank is only 560 yd
Weaving-fabric manufacture
The weaving process uses a loom. The lengthway threads are known as the warp, and the cross way threads are known as the weft. The warp which must be strong needs to be presented to loom on a warp beam. The weft, passes across the loom in a shuttle, that carries the yarn on a pirn. These pirns are automatically changed by the loom. Thus, the yarn needs to be wrapped onto a beam, and onto pirns before weaving can commence.
Winding
After being spun and plied, the cotton thread is taken to a warping room where the winding machine takes the required length of yarn and winds it onto warpers bobbins
Warping or beaming
A Warper
Racks of bobbins are set up to hold the thread while it is rolled onto the warp bar of a loom. Because the thread is fine, often three of these would be combined to get the desired thread count.[citation needed].
Sizing
Slasher sizing machine needed for strengthening the warp by adding starch.
Drawing in, Looming
The process of drawing each end of the warp separately through the dents of the reed and the eyes of the healds, in the order indicated by the draft.
Pirning (Processing the weft)
Pirn winding frame was used to transfer the weft from cheeses of yarn onto the pirns that would fit into the shuttle
Weaving
Main article: Power loom
At this point, the thread is woven. Depending on the era, one person could manage anywhere from 3 to 100 machines. In the mid nineteenth century, four was the standard number. A skilled weaver in 1925 would run 6 Lancashire Looms. As time progressed new mechanisms were added that stopped the loom any time something went wrong. The mechanisms checked for such things as a broken warp thread, broken weft thread, the shuttle going straight across, and if the shuttle was empty. Forty of these Northrop Looms or automatic looms could be operated by one skilled worker.
A Draper loom in textile museum,Lowell, Massachusetts
The three primary movements of a loom are shedding, picking, and beating-up.
Shedding: The operation of dividing the warp into two lines, so that the shuttle can pass between these lines. There are two general kinds of sheds-”open” and “closed.” Open Shed-The warp threads are moved when the pattern requires it-from one line to the other. Closed Shed-The warp threads are all placed level in one line after each pick.
Picking:The operation of projecting the shuttle from side to side of the loom through the division in the warp threads. This is done by the overpick or underpick motions. The overpick is suitable for quick-running looms, whereas the underpick is best for heavy or slow looms.
Beating-up: The third primary movement of the loom when making cloth, and is the action of the reed as it drives each pick of weft to the fell of the cloth.
The Lancashire Loom was the first semi-automatic loom. Jacquard looms and Dobby looms are looms that have sophisticated methods of shedding. They may be separate looms, or mechanisms added to a plain loom. A Northrop Loom was fully automatic and was mass produced between 1909 and the mid 1960s. Modern looms run faster and do not use a shuttle: there are air jet looms, water jet looms and rapier looms.
Measurements
Ends and Picks: Picks refer to the weft, ends refer to the warp. The coarseness of the cloth can be expressed as the number of picks and ends per quarter inch square, or per inch square. Ends is always written first. For example: Heavy domestics are made from coarse yarns, such as 10′s to 14′s warp and weft, and about 48 ends and 52 picks.
Associated job titles
Piecer
Scavenger
Weaver
Tackler
Draw boy
Pirner
Issues
When a hand loom was located in the home, children helped with the weaving process from an early age. Piecing needs dexterity, and a child can be as productive as an adult. When weaving moves from the home to the mill, children were often allowed to help their older sisters, and laws have to be made to prevent child labour becoming established,
Knitting- Fabric manufacture
A circular knitting machine.
Close-up on the needles.
Knitting by machine is done in two different ways; warp and weft. Weft knitting (as seen in the pictures) is similar in method to hand knitting with stitches all connected to each other horizontally. Various weft machines can be configured to produce textiles from a single spool of yarn or multiple spools depending on the size of the machine cylinder (where the needles are bedded). In a warp knit there are many pieces of yarn and there are vertical chains, zigzagged together by crossing the yarn.
Warp knits do not stretch as much as a weft knit, and it is run-resistant. A weft knit is not run-resistant, but stretches more, this is especially true if spools of Lycra are processed from separate spool containers and interwoven through the cylinder with cotton yarn giving the finished product more flexibility making it less prone to having a ‘baggy’ appearance. The average t-shirt is a weft knit.
Finishing- Processing of Textiles
The grey cloth,woven cotton fabric in its loom-state, not only contains impurities, including warp size, but requires further treatment in order to develop its full textile potential. Furthermore, it may receive considerable added value by applying one or more finishing processes.
Desizing
Depending on the size that has been used, the cloth may be steeped in a dilute acid and then rinsed, or enzymes may be used to break down the size.
Scouring
Scouring, is a chemical washing process carried out on cotton fabric to remove natural wax and non-fibrous impurities (eg the remains of seed fragments) from the fibres and any added soiling or dirt. Scouring is usually carried in iron vessels called kiers. The fabric is boiled in an alkali, which forms a soap with free fatty acids. (saponification). A kier is usually enclosed, so the solution of sodium hydroxide can be boiled under pressure, excluding oxygen which would degrade the cellulose in the fibre. If the appropriate reagents are used, scouring will also remove size from the fabric although desizing often precedes scouring and is considered to be a separate process known as fabric preparation. Preparation and scouring are prerequisites to most of the other finishing processes. At this stage even the most naturally white cotton fibres are yellowish, and bleaching, the next process, is required.
Bleaching
Main article: Textile bleaching
Bleaching improves whiteness by removing natural coloration and remaining trace impurities from the cotton; the degree of bleaching necessary is determined by the required whiteness and absorbency. Cotton being a vegetable fibre will be bleached using an oxidizing agent, such as dilute sodium hydrochlorite or dilute hydrogen peroxide. If the fabric is to be dyed a deep shade, then lower levels of bleaching are acceptable, for example. However, for white bed sheetings and medical applications, the highest levels of whiteness and absorbency are essential.
Mercerising
Main article: Mercerized cotton
A further possibility is mercerizing during which the fabric is treated with caustic soda solution to cause swelling of the fibres. This results in improved lustre, strength and dye affinity. Cotton is mercerized under tension, and all alkali must be washed out before the tension is released or shrinkage will take place. Mercerizing can take place directly on grey cloth, or after bleaching.
Many other chemical treatments may be applied to cotton fabrics to produce low flammability, crease resist and other special effects but four important non-chemical finishing treatments are:
Singeing
Main article: Singe#Textiles
Singeing is designed to burn off the surface fibres from the fabric to produce smoothness. The fabric passes over brushes to raise the fibres, then passes over a plate heated by gas flames.
Raising
Another finishing process is raising. During raising, the fabric surface is treated with sharp teeth to lift the surface fibres, thereby imparting hairiness, softness and warmth, as in flannelette.
Calendering
Main article: Calender
Calendering is the third important mechanical process, in which the fabric is passed between heated rollers to generate smooth, polished or embossed effects depending on roller surface properties and relative speeds.
Shrinking (Sanforizing)
Main article: Sanforization
Finally, mechanical shrinking (sometimes referred to as sanforizing), whereby the fabric is forced to shrink width and/or lengthwise, creates a fabric in which any residual tendency to shrink after subsequent laundering is minimal.
Dyeing
Main article: Dyeing
Finally, cotton is an absorbent fibre which responds readily to colouration processes. Dyeing, for instance, is commonly carried out with an anionic direct dye by completely immersing the fabric (or yarn) in an aqueous dyebath according to a prescribed procedure. For improved fastness to washing, rubbing and light, other dyes such as vats and reactives are commonly used. These require more complex chemistry during processing and are thus more expensive to apply.
Printing
Main article: Textile printing
Printing, on the other hand, is the application of colour in the form of a paste or ink to the surface of a fabric, in a predetermined pattern. It may be considered as localised dyeing. Printing designs on to already dyed fabric is also possible.
Economic, environmental and political consequences of cotton manufacture
The growth of cotton is divided into two segments i.e. organic and genetically modified. . Cotton crop provides livelihood to millions of people but its production is becoming expensive because of high water consumption, use of expensive pesticides, insecticides and fertiliser. GM products aim to increase disease resistance and reduce the water required. The organic sector was worth $583 million. GM cotton, in 2007, occupied 43% of cotton growing areas..
The consumption of energy in form of water and electricity is relatively high, especially in processes like washing, de-sizing, bleaching, rinsing, dyeing, printing, coating and finishing. Processing is time consuming. The major portion of water in textile industry is used for wet processing of textile (70 per cent). Approximately 25 per cent of energy in the total textile production like fibre production, spinning, twisting, weaving, knitting, clothing manufacturing etc. is used in dyeing. About 34 per cent of energy is consumed in spinning, 23 per cent in weaving, 38 per cent in chemical wet processing and five per cent in miscellaneous processes. Power dominates consumption pattern in spinning and weaving, while thermal energy is the major factor for chemical wet processing.
Processing of other vegetable fibres- other processes
Flax
Main article: Flax
Flax is a bast fibre, which means it comes in bundles under the bark of the Linum usitatissimum plant. The plant flowers and is harvested.
Retting
Breaking
Scutching
Hackling or combing
It is now treated like cotton.
Jute
Main article: Jute
Jute is a bast fibre, which comes from the inner bark of the plants of the Corchorus genus. It is retted like flax, sundried and baled. When spinning a small amount of oil must be added to the fibre. It can be bleached and dyed. It was used for sacks and bags but is now used for the backing for carpets.
Hemp
Main article: Hemp
Hemp is a bast fibre from the inner bark of Cannabis sativa. It is difficult to bleach, it is used for making cord and rope.
Retting
Separating
Pounding
Other bast fibres
These bast fibres can also be used: kenaf, urena, ramie, nettle.
Other leaf fibres
Sisal is the main leaf fibre used; others are: abac and henequen.
Processing of Protein fibres
Wool comes from domesticated sheep. It forms two products, woolens and worsteds. The sheep has two sorts of wool and it in the inner coat that is used. This can be mixed with wool that has been recovered from rags. Shoddy is the term for recovered wool that is not matted, while mungo comes from felted wool. Extract is recovered chemically from mixed cotton/wool fabrics.
The fleece is cut in one piece from the sheep.This is then skirted to remove the soiled wool, and baled. It is graded into long wool where the fibres can be up to 15 in, but anything over 2.5 inches is suitable for combing into worsteds. Fibres less than that form short wool and are described as clothing or carding wool.
At the mill the wool is scoured in a detergent to remove grease (the yolk) and impurities. This is done mechanically in the opening machine. Vegetable matter can be removed chemically using sulfuric acid (carbonising). Washing uses a solution of soap and sodium carbonate. The wool is oiled before carding or combing.
Woollens: Use noils from the worsted combs, mungo and shoddy and new short wool
Worsteds
Combing: Oiled slivers are wound into laps, and placed in the circular comber. The worsted yarn gathers together to form a top. The shorter fibres or noils remain behind and are removed with a knife.
Angora
Silk
The processes in silk production are similar to those of cotton but take account that reeeled silk is a continuous fibre. The terms used are different.
Opening bales. Assorting skeins:where silk is sorted by colour, size and quality, scouring: where the silk is washed in water of 40 degrees for 12 hours to remove the natural gum, drying:either by steam heating or centrifuge, softening: by rubbing to remove any remaining hard spots.
Silk throwing (winding). The skeins are placed on a reel in a frame with many others. The silk is wound onto spools or bobbins.
Doubling and twisting. The silk is far too fine to be woven, so now it is doubled and twisted to make the warp, known as organzine and the weft, known as tram. In organzine each single is given a few twists per inch (tpi), and combine with several other singles counter twisted hard at 10 to 14 tpi. In tram the two singles are doubled with each other with a light twist, 3 to 6 tpi. Sewing thread is two tram threads, hard twisted and machine-twist is made of three hard twisted tram threads. Tram for the crepe process is twisted at up to 80 tpi to make it ‘kick up’.
Stretching. The thread is tested for consistent size. Any uneven thickness is stretched out. The resulting thread is reeled into containing 500 yd to 2500 yd. The skeins are about 50 in in loop length.
Dyeing: the skeins are scoured again, and discoloration removed with a sulphur process. This weakens the silk. The skeins are now tinted or dyed. They are dried and rewound onto bobbins, spools and skeins. Looming, and the weaving process on power looms is the same as with cotton.
Weaving. The organzine is now warped. This is a similar process to in cotton. Firstly, thirty threads or so are wound onto a warping reel, and then using the warping reels, the threads are beamed. A thick layer of paper is lain between each layer on the beam to stop entangling.
Processing of man made fibres
Discussion of types of man made fibres
Main article: Synthetic fibre
Synthetic fibres are the result of extensive development by scientists to improve upon the naturally occurring animal and plant fibres. In general, synthetic fibers are created by forcing, or extruding, fibre forming materials through holes (called spinnerets) into the air, thus forming a thread. Before synthetic fibres were developed, cellulose fibers were made from natural cellulose, which comes from plants.
The first artificial fibre, known as art silk from 1799 onwards, became known as viscose around 1894, and finally rayon in 1924. A similar product known as cellulose acetate was discovered in 1865. Rayon and acetate are both artificial fibres, but not truly synthetic, being made from wood. Although these artificial fibres were discovered in the mid-nineteenth century, successful modern manufacture began much later in the 1930s. Nylon, the first synthetic fibre, made its debut in the United States as a replacement for silk, and was used for parachutes and other military uses.[citation needed]
The techniques used to process these fibres in yarn are essentially the same as with natural fibres, modifications have to be made as these fibers are of great length, and have no texture such as the scales in cotton and wool that aid meshing.[citation needed]
Additional processes associated with man made fibres
See also
Glossary of textile manufacturing
References
^ a b c Majeed, A (January 19, 2009). “Cotton and textiles the challenges ahead”. Dawn-the Internet edition. http://www.dawn.com/2009/01/19/ebr5.htm. Retrieved 2009-02-12.
^ “Machin processes”. Spinning the Web. Manchester City Council: Libraries. http://www.spinningtheweb.org.uk/industry/machproc.php. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
^ a b c “Handicrafts India.”. Craft Revival Trust,. http://www.craftrevival.org/voiceDetails.asp?Code=25. Retrieved 2009-02-12.
^ “Cultivating and Harvesting”. Spinning the Web. Manchester City Council: Libraries. http://www.spinningtheweb.org.uk/m_display.php?irn=64&sub=machproc&theme=industry&crumb=Cultivation+&+harvesting. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
^ Collier 1970, p. 11
^ a b Collier 1970, p. 13
^ “Preparatory Processes”. Spinning the Web. Manchester City Council: Libraries. http://www.spinningtheweb.org.uk/m_display.php?irn=65&sub=machproc&theme=industry&crumb=Preparatory+processes. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
^ Collier 1970, pp. 66,67
^ Collier 1970, p. 69
^ Collier 1970, pp. 70
^ Hills 1993, p. 4
^ Collier 1970, pp. 71
^ Saxonhouse, Gary. SST Seminars “Technological Evolution in Cotton Spinning, 1878-1933″. Stanford University. http://siepr.stanford.edu/programs/SST_Seminars/Jeremy.pdf SST Seminars. Retrieved 2009-01-26.
^ Collier 1970, pp. 79
^ “Spinning”. Spinning the Web. Manchester City Council: Libraries. http://www.spinningtheweb.org.uk/m_display.php?irn=66&sub=machproc&theme=industry&crumb=Spinning. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
^ Curtis 1921, p. 1
^ Curtis 1921, p. Cotton count
^ Collier 1970, p. 3
^ Collier 1970, p. 74
^ “Weaving”. Spinning the Web. Manchester City Council: Libraries. http://www.spinningtheweb.org.uk/m_display.php?irn=66&sub=machproc&theme=industry&crumb=Weaving. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
^ Fowler, Alan (2003). Lancashire Cotton Operatives and Work, 1900-1950: A Social History of Lancashire Cotton Operatives in the Twentieth Century. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.,. pp. 90. ISBN 0754601161, 9780754601166. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7GHLv-rLifgC&printsec=frontcover. Retrieved 21 Jan 2009.
^ Curtis 1921, p. Shed
^ Curtis 1921, p. Ends
^ Collier 1970, p. 118
^ “Finishing”. Spinning the Web. Manchester City Council: Libraries. http://www.spinningtheweb.org.uk/m_display.php?irn=68&sub=machproc&theme=industry&crumb=Finishing. Retrieved 2009-01-29.
^ GREENHALGH, DAVID (2005). “Cotton finishing”. http://website.lineone.net/~davghalgh/cotton_finishing.html. Retrieved 2009-02-12.
^ a b Collier 1970, p. 155
^ Collier 1970, p. 157
^ Collier 1970, p. 159
^ “Cotton: From Field to Fashion Facts behind the Fiber”. Talent2Trade. http://www.t2trade.co.uk/downloads/ComparingConventionalCottontoOrganic-TheFacts.pdf. Retrieved 2009-02-12.
^ Collier 1970, p. 16
^ Collier 1970, p. 17
^ Collier 1970, p. 19
^ “Silk manufacture”. Antiques Digest: Lost Knowledge from the Past. Old and Sold. Early 1900s. http://www.oldandsold.com/articles04/textiles17.shtml. Retrieved 2009-07-04.
Bibliography
Barfoot, J. R. (1840). The Progress of Cotton. Barfoot’s series of coloured lithographs of 1840 depicting the cotton manufacturing process.. Spinning the Web, Manchester Libraries: Darton. pp. 12. http://www.spinningtheweb.org.uk/bookbrowse.php?page=2&book=Barfoot&sub=overview&theme=overview&crumb=The Age of the Factory&submit_x=0&submit_y=0&submit=submit. Retrieved 11 Feb 2009.
Collier, Ann M (1970). A Handbook of Textiles. Pergamon Press. pp. 258. ISBN 0 08 018057 4, 0 08 018056 6.
Curtis, H P (1921), “Glossary of Textile Terms”, Arthur Roberts Black Book. (Manchester: Marsden & Company, Ltd. 1921), http://www.oneguyfrombarlick.co.uk/forum_topic.asp?whichpage=1&TOPIC_ID=6424&FORUM_ID=99&CAT_ID=3&Forum_Title=Rare+Text+(Book+Transcriptions)&Topic_Title=A+Glossary+of+Textile+Terms, retrieved 2009-01-11
Gurr, Duncan; Hunt, Julian (1998), The Cotton Mills of Oldham, Oldham Education & Leisure, ISBN 0-902809-46-6, http://www.spinningtheweb.org.uk/a_results.php?x=5&y=7&QueryName=KeyWord&KeyWords=The+Cotton+Mills+of+Oldham,+brief+history+and+gazetteer
Hills, Richard Leslie (1993). Power from Steam: A History of the Stationary Steam Engine. Cambridge University Press,. pp. 244. ISBN 052145834X, 9780521458344. http://books.google.com/books?id=t6TLOQBhd0YC. Retrieved January 2009.
Nasmith, Joseph (1894), “Recent Cotton Mill Construction and Engineering”, Recent Cotton Mill Construction and Engineering. (John Heywood, Deansgate, Manchester, reprinted Elibron Classics), ISBN 1-4021-4558-6, http://www.archive.org/details/recentcottonmill00nasm, retrieved 2009-01-11
Roberts, A S (1921), “Arthur Robert’s Engine List”, Arthur Roberts Black Book. (One guy from Barlick-Book Transcription), http://oneguyfrombarlick.co.uk/forum_topic.asp?TOPIC_ID=7926&FORUM_ID=99&CAT_ID=3&Forum_Title=Rare+Text+(Book+Transcriptions)&Topic_Title=ARTHUR+ROBERTS+ENGINE+LIST&whichpage=1&tmp=1#pid81483, retrieved 2009-01-11
External links
Cotton Year Book 1910 (Textile Mercury) Descriptions and calculations for purchasing all cotton processing machines.
1921 John Hetherington & Sons Catalogue Descriptions and illustrations of principal machines.
Profile of the Textiles Industry: US EPA Guidebook
v d e
Fibers
Natural
Animal
Alpaca Angora Bison Down Camel hair Cashmere Catgut Chiengora Guanaco Llama Mohair Pashmina Qiviut Rabbit Silk Sinew Spider silk Wool Vicua Yak
Vegetable
Abac Bamboo Coir Cotton Flax Hemp Jute Kapok Kenaf Pia Raffia palm Ramie Sisal Wood
Mineral
Asbestos Basalt Mineral wool Glass wool
Cellulose
Acetate Art silk Bamboo Lyocell (Tencel) Modal Rayon
Synthetic
Acrylic Aramid (Twaron Kevlar Technora Nomex) Carbon (Tenax) Microfiber Modacrylic Nylon Olefin Polyester Polyethylene (Dyneema Spectra) Spandex Vinalon Zylon
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Textile arts
Fundamentals:
Applique Crochet Dyeing Embroidery Fabric (textiles) Felting Fiber Knitting Lace Nlebinding Needlework Patchwork Passementerie Plying Quilting Rope Sewing Spinning Tapestry Textile printing Weaving Yarn
History of… :
Clothing and textiles Silk Quilting Textiles in the Industrial Revolution Timeline of textile technology
Regional and ethnic:
Andean Australian Aboriginal Hmong Korean Mori
Related:
Blocking Fiber art Mathematics and fiber arts Manufacturing
Preservation Terminology Textile industry Textile Museums Units of measurement Wearable fiber art
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Spinning
Materials
Noil Rolag Roving Sliver Staple Top Tow Woolen Worsted
Techniques
Carding Combing Long draw Short draw Twist per inch
Hand spinning tools
Distaff Niddy noddy Spindle Spinning wheel Spinners weasel
Industrial spinning
Cotton-spinning machinery Open end spinning Ring spinning Spinning frame Spinning jenny Spinning mule Throstle frame Water frame Wool combing machine
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Weaving
Weaves
Basketweave Charvet Coverlet Double weave Even-weave Lampas Oxford Pile weave Piqu Plain weave Satin weave Twill Gabardine
Components
Textiles Warp Weft Yarn
Tools and techniques
Chilkat weaving Fingerweaving Heddle Ikat Inkle weaving Jacquard weaving Kasuri Loom Navajo rug Shuttle Tablet weaving Tniko Tapestry
Types of looms
Dobby loom Jacquard loom Hattersley loom Lancashire loom Northrop loom Power loom Roberts Loom Warp weighted loom
Weavers
Acesas Ada Dietz Micheline Beauchemin Pamphile John Rylands Brigitta Scherzenfeldt Clara Sherman Judocus de Vos
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Cotton
Architects
Stott Sidney Stott (later Sir Philip) Edward Potts Potts, Pickup & Dixon F.W. Dixon & Son
Engine makers
Daniel Adamson Ashton Frost Ashworth & Parker Boulton & Watt Browett & Lindley Buckley & Taylor Carel Earnshaw & Holt Goodfellow Fairbairn W & J Galloway B Goodfellow Hicks Musgrave J & W McNaught Petrie of Rochdale George Saxon Scott & Hodgson Urmson & Thompson Yates of Blackburn Yates & Thom Whilans J & E Wood Woolstenhulmes & Rye
Machinery makers
Brooks & Doxey Butterworth & Dickinson Dobson & Barlow John Hetherington & Sons Joseph Hibbert Howard & Bullough Geo. Hattersley Asa Lees Mather & Platt Platt Brothers Taylor, Lang & Co Textile Machinery Makers Ltd Tweedales & Smalley
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Oldham Limiteds Fine Spinners and Doublers Lancashire Cotton Corporation Courtaulds Bagley & Wright
Industrial processes
Textile manufacturing Cotton-spinning machinery Open end spinning Ring spinning Spinning frame Spinning jenny Spinning mule Water frame Roberts Loom Lancashire Loom
Lists of mills
LCC mills Bolton Bury Cheshire Derbyshire Lancashire Manchester Oldham Rochdale Salford Stockport Tameside Wigan
Categories: Textile industry | History of the textile industryHidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from February 2009
